Bullying, abuse, perceptions for the potential for harassment, isolation, prejudices, limited access to vocational education / training and employment difficulties are some of the difficulties faced by Chinese female seafarers, researchers at Dalian Maritime University, China, have revealed.
Although noting that there has been “tangible progress toward gender diversity and inclusiveness, researchers Wenyu Lyu and Lianbo Li noted that female seafarers around the world continue to face difficulties and challenges. Their research “Sailing into rough seas: the difficulties and challenges Chinese women seafarers face,” in the February 2024 journal, Marine Policy, (doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105955) focuses on Chinese female seafarers to explore women’s struggles in the pursuit of a seafaring career on ocean-going cargo ships.
Seafarer demographics
Worldwide, an estimated 24,059 women are Standards of Training Certification and Watchkeeping-certified seafarers, and this represents about 1.28% of the worlds 1.9 million strong seafarer workforce, the researchers say, quoting research from the International Chamber of Shipping & trade body BIMCO. At the end of December 2022, according to the Report on the Development of Chinese Seafarers, China had 1,716,866 registered seafarers of which 258,896 were female; the total number of seafarer has increased by 9% while the number of female seafarers increased by just over 8% over the last three years. The proportion of female Chinese seafarers is said to be relatively stable at 15% and there is an increasing number of women engaging in international ocean-going voyages. However, the researchers note, most of the registered females in China engage in service aspects on passenger ships and cruises ships rather than in the “maritime departments” of their vessels. The researchers note that, in 2018, data on the number of female Chinese STCW seafarers was disclosed. In 2018, there were only 33 female STCW-certified seafarers who work in the maritime departments of international ocean-going ships, of which 30 were officers and three were rating. “This compares unfavourably with global… figures,” the researchers note.
Education & Training
The researchers noted that, although early-leader universities in Chain began recruiting women in navigation topics – with more than 20 majoring in navigation every year – and “most universities and institutions” in
China having opened to female students in 2014, “there are just [a] few Chinese female crew members working on cargo ships now”. The researchers identified that only a small percentage of women choose to apply for seafaring related majors – less than one-tenth the number of males, or approximately 200 women apply for seafaring-related majors each year. Three factors are identified: firstly, shipping is said to be more “low-key” i.e. less popular and that young women “especially, do know know [of] the career opportunities”. Secondly, even though institutions opened up to female students in 2014, it was noted that outright prohibitions and exclusions (e.g. “male only”) have been replaced with discriminatory language “not suitable for female students”. Some women also reported that admissions advisers attempted to dissuade them entering into maritime careers in which “girls will have greater difficulties”.
Researchers found that the results and effectiveness of formal education and training vary by training institution, with over half of students unable to obtain the certificate of competency for ocean-going ships. Given the male-to-female ratio of students then it is clear that the low rate of training is “serious”. Only 32 female students out of 255 female graduates obtained their certificates as qualified seafarers at one university, the researchers noted.
Employment difficulties, prejudices, gender stereotypes, and superstition
Researchers found that women found difficulties in getting jobs on ships and that, even if female students graduated with certificates of competency, most chose to work in roles that are nota at sea. About 86.5% of the female future seafarers reported that they would not work onboard after graduation. Some female respondents also referred to familial expectations, with one expressing a desire to to a doctoral degree and become a teacher as this was her parents’, and her own, expectations. Another comment was that many female students changed their majors and then “almost all the rest” decide to instead study for a Master’s or a PhD.
One factor that may have led to a reluctance to offer jobs to female Chinese seafarers may be the existence of historical superstitions and taboos, one of which is that the presence of women on board will bring bad luck. For instance, in certain parts of East Asia, women are not allowed to touch the traditional “dragon boat”, or that menstrual blood will bring bad luck to men. “When I am on board, I tend not to let anybody know [that] I am in the menstrual period. Men just feel uncomfortable or feel unlucky to talk about it,” one respondent reported.
Another area of prejudice reported is that male seafarers in China are reluctant to accept women as colleagues onboard, or to even hold a degree of professional hostility toward women. The researchers noted that much terminology is male-gendered e.g. helmsman, motorman, first mate, second mate, etc and theorised that the idea of masculinity has been deeply rooted in the thoughts and working culture. “This is not a world for you… you don’t belong here. I often hear from males”. And another comment: “Frankly speaking, I feel like a guest on board, and I take this job because it will help me find better office work on shore if I have some sailing experience, so maybe they are right. Women do not belong to the industry”.
Male officers and seafarers perceive that having women aboard can mean extra work and responsibilities, the researchers noted. For example, males are generally prohibited from going into women’s cabins; if they have to go then two persons are required. One male respondent reported that a female respondent refused to open her cabin door when “PSC was onboard” and the seafarers had to find a female PSC to talk to her. Female seafarers have also reported that senior personnel harbour feelings of mistrust — one reported that the Captain did not trust her to work on the bridge, and another reported that her Captain always accompanied her on the bridge. The researchers also noted that Chinese companies perceive that it is less risky to have male only ships. “Many enterprises believe that the employment of women on ships will increase the management risks such as possible sexual harassment or bullying, so the working environment for pure men is simpler for management,” the researchers note.
A further issue appears to be the attitudes of companies to Chinese women in respect of family and child birth, along with local attitudes toward the traditional roles of women in the family. Just under 75% of female Chinese registered-seafarers are between 20-30 years old but this percentage drops quickly after the age of 30.
“Chinese women will actively or passively end their careers for marriage and childbirth. In the minds of many people (especially Asian families), the traditional idea of “men in charge of the outside and women in charge of the inside” limits women’s choice of jobs. Especially after marriage and childbirth, women are supposed to take care of the family and nurture children. If they leave the task to their husbands, it is usually unacceptable to lots of traditional families. Therefore, when there is a conflict between career and family, most women choose to sacrifice their dreams,” the researchers say.
Noting that Chinese female seafarers are generally aged about 22-24, and that it takes at least 42 months to be promoted to chief officer / second engineer (but in reality takes more like 6-8 years as the Maritime Labour Convention mandates that the maximum service period onboard ships must be lest than 12 months and that it takes time to find a ship to work on), many Chinese female seafarers may start to consider marriage, pregnancy and family. “Almost all the women seafarers quit their jobs and try to find a position on shore after several years’ work on board”, the researchers note.
Bullying and harassment
The researchers noted that international studies had indicated high levels of male harassment and intimidation of women seafarers; about 66% of the 1,128 women from 78 countries had reported harassment and intimidation in an August 2020 Gender Diversity Study. Such reports were not made in the context of the current study, although researchers noted that may be because of the fact that there are only small numbers of Chinese women working on cargo ships.
It was observed that Chinese female seafarers are focused on how to protect themselves at sea and the subsequent hardships they endure from taking protective measures.
“I was the only female on the ship, and naturally became the centre of the topic. Whoever I said more words to would be stared at by male colleagues, and then infinitely enlarged, and finally the rumours spread all over the ship. So I have to avoid contact with people,” one seafarer reported.
The researchers noted that seafarers can have a limited social life on board, especially because of the costs of using communications technology at sea – and / or the limited nature of that technology.
“If women choose to isolate themselves from other male counterparts, then without proper interpersonal communication, the loneliness and depression will be further aggravated and eventually drive females away from the industry,” the researchers noted.
A further problem is the potential for sexual harassment. Some women attempt to protect themselves through their physical appearance such as de-emphasising their feminine characteristics. One respondent reported that she wears short hair, does not wear make-up, wears loose cloths and so on an attempt to “look like a man,” adding that “in this way, I think maybe the males won’t see me as female and the dangers won’t find me”. Other respondents report they avoid being around men by avoiding the gym or going to the messroom at the same time as men.
Safety, hygiene and healthcare
As humans are sexually dimorphic, men and women have different body shapes and sizes and, given that the maritime industry is male-dominated, getting well-fitting personal protective equipment can be a challenge for Chinese female seafarers. The researchers note that the average height of Chinese females is 158cm with a foot length of around 36cm. Chinese female seafarers find it difficult to obtain protective work clothes. One respondent reported that she has to wear her own shoes and roll up her trouser legs and sleeves to do work.
It was also noted that gender-specific information on topics such as back pain, mental health, nutrition, and medicines to address gynaecological complaints. However, most ships are not equipped with proper medicines to deal with female health. “No medical locker has any medicines for your period cramps. You have to take care of yourself, that’s it,” one respondent noted.
Although the Maritime Labour Convention refers to separate sleeping rooms for men and women, and also for separate sanitary facilities for men and women, the researchers noted that on some older ships (or ships with older designs), some crew rooms do not have independent toilets and bathrooms. Officers-of-the-watch note that they are supposed to use the nearest toilet facilities and cannot go to their own bathrooms.
Ships are also inadequately prepared for on-board menstruation. Chinese seafarers have no easy access to menstrual products and there appears to be no appropriate way to hygienically dispose of used sanitary products.
“I have to prepare many sanitary products, at least 6 months’ usage, before going on board… there is no way to get it from the ship chandler, I mean, I cannot ask the ship master to put it on the list for me. So my luggage is full of sanitary products when I am on board,” one seafarer responded. Another expressed embarrassment and felling at a loss as to how to dispose of used sanitary towels and tampons.
Details of the study
Data was gather by an online self-completed questionnaire from 37 female and 43 male cadets who majored in navigation technology and marine engineering. The questionnaires were also distributed to 10 female and 10 male ratings or officers who have worked onboard for between 15 to 87 months. The ten male seafarers all reported experience of working alongside female seafarers. Questionnaires were developed based on a literature review of approximately 100 academic papers and reports on gender equality in the shipping industry. Details on the questionnaires varied in part according to research subject type (male, female, students). It should be noted that, owing to the nature of the study (case reports; qualitative study) and owing to the small sample size, the findings do not prove cause or effect and may or may not be generalisable to the whole population.
Further reading and links
“Sailing into rough seas: The difficulties and challenges Chinese women seafarers face,” (doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2023.105955) W Lyu and L Li, Dalian Maritime University, China.
